PREPARING YOUR MASTER'S PROJECT:
A Manual of Style & Substance
R.S. Zaharna, Ed.D.
• SECTION I: STYLE
• SECTION II: SUBSTANCE
Thinking about substance
Basic
Elements
Chapter I: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Statement of Purpose & Objectives
Study Significance
Background
Study Limitations
Study Overview
Chapter III: Methodology Chapter III: Case Profile
Chapter IV: Finding
Chapter IV: Case Analysis
Chapter V: Discussion
Chapter VI: Conclusion
Chapter V: Conclusion
Organization:
Chosing a Research Approach
Experimental Research
Field Observations
Survey Research
Literature Review
Case Study
Content Analysis
Trend/Issue Analysis
Comparative Analysis
Annodated Bibliography
Master's projects invariably vary. Even if two candidates chose the
same topic, their projects would not be the same. The studies might vary
by the focus: what one chooses to concentrate on. They may vary by the
approach: how they go about examining and explaining their study to the
reader. They may vary by the choice of medium: exclusively print medium
versus incorporating audio visual material. The variation on any one topic
is endless.
Because of the many possibilities of one topic, multiplied by the possibilities
of many topics, it is not possible to prescribe one set format for all
Master's projects. However, as a work of scholarship, there are certain
elements that all Master's projects need to contain. Appendix D offers
a simplified way of organizing one's ideas for the project while at the
same time incorporating all of the scholastic elements.
Before looking at the elements in detail, a word about creativity in
scholarship. Creativity in scholarship stems from the power of one's ideas
-- how one combines old ideas or how one generates new and challenging
ones. For this reason, the writing objective is clarity. Simple, direct
language will help ensure that the candidate's ideas are readily and clearly
understood. Anything that obscures clarity is a minus. It is also important
for the candidate to make sure that all of the elements of scholarship
are clearly evident in his project. Again, creativity should not obscure
or replace any of the scholastic elements.
These basic elements for all studies are discussed in detail below.
Different research approaches follow.
As a major piece of work submitted for a graduate degree, the Master's
project is guaranteed to be read and read thoroughly. Thus, getting the
reader's attention is not the goal of the introduction. Good introductions
to a Master's project are built on five critical components:
Statement of the Problem
The first thing the candidate needs to do is present a clear and pressing
problem. The problem can center around a controversial debate, an unresolved
dilemma, a new phenomenon or growing trend. Anything that represents a
potential gap in our knowledge about a topic can be "a problem."
Statement of Purpose and Objectives
(optional / helpful)
Having presented a clear and pressing problem, the candidate then presents
how he proposes to address the problem. What specific feature will the
candidate focus on? How will he address or approach this feature? What
does he hope to achieve by adopting this focus and this approach?
The candidate may wish to list three or four objectives he hopes to
achieve by conducting the study. The objectives should be specific, manageable
and focused. They may be presented in a list format.
Study Significance
The candidate wants to make a clear and compelling case as to why the
study is needed at this time. Why is the problem significant? How does
it affect us? How will it benefit us? How will it advance our current knowledge
or understanding? Why can't we just forget about it?
Another way to think about it . . . "This study is significant to the
field of public communication because . . .
A candidate may provide justification based on the magnitude of the
problem, the dearth of existing information, the benefits offered by additional
information, or even the advantages of simply looking at the problem from
a different angle.
Background
The "Background" provides additional information about the issue or
problem. It can present the context or backdrop of how the problem
emerged. It can explain an important piece of legislation or ideology
that relates to the problem.
Study Limitations
Because the approaches to a phenomenon can be endless, it is important
for a candidate to state what the study will not cover. This is a necessary
precautionary step for all candidates. Unless the candidate states what
she will not address, anyone can say, "This study is incomplete because
this, and this, and this were omitted." By stating the study limitation,
the candidate limits the focus for herself and her reader.
Study Overview
In this final portion of the Introduction, the candidate provides a
brief synopsis of the coming chapters. You can simply state what the chapter
is about and highlight the purpose or main point in the chapter.
A literature review serves several main functions. First, the review
helps ensure that the candidate hasn't "reinvented the wheel." Because
much of the writing process is about generating ideas, the more one writes
the more one begins to discover one brilliant idea after another. Unfortunately,
not all brilliant ideas are new ideas. Literature reviews help the writer
insure which ideas are new and which aren't.
Second, the literature review demonstrates the candidate's ability
to do research on a given topic. This review is what gives the candidate
a command of the field and builds her expertise. The review should be thorough,
yet selective. A candidate may review 25 articles, but only select five.
She only includes those articles that advance her argument in a meaningful
way, adding others only dilutes or weakens her argument.
Finally, the literature review provides the foundation for the entire
study. The review enables the candidate to build a working framework and
shared vocabulary for herself and her reader. In the review, she can introduce
terminology, theories, and concepts that may later play a pivotal role
in her analysis.
If there is relatively little information on a topic, the literature
review is perhaps even more critical. By demonstrating a clear dearth of
information, the candidate only builds her case for the significance of
the study. In doing the review, the candidate should discuss those studies
that come closest to the phenomenon and state how they are lacking. If
possible the candidate may be able to substitute this lack of written information
with interviews. Documenting this aural source of material is a vital contribution
to scholarship.
In this chapter, the candidate spells out in specific detail what he
did during each step or phase of his study. He may also explain the rationale
behind each step. In the traditional sciences, methodology is a critical
section because most studies are based on experiments.
In communication arts, candidates may choose either quantitative or
qualitative research methods. Quantitative studies (e.g., survey research)
use measurements and statistical analysis to describe a phenomenon. Methodology
is important for others who may wish to duplicate the study to test the
study results.
Qualitative studies (e.g., content analysis, discourse analysis, etc.)
examine the nature or characteristics of a phenomenon. Methodology is equally
important for qualitative research because of questions of researcher bias
and objectivity. Thus, regardless of the methodology used, it is important
that candidates clearly spell out the methodology used in their study.
Rationale for choosing a methodology may stem from the literature review
as well as discussion with one's advisor.
In this section, the candidate presents the results of his study. This
section is necessarily related to the methodology section, but is distinctly
different. Whereas methodology explains what the candidate did (an activity),
findings explain what the candidate found out (product of the activity).
V. Discussion, or Analysis
The discussion section explores findings in more detail and may speculate
why something happened the way that it did. For the discussion, the candidate
can draw again on the literature review to explain or elaborate on the
findings. In the case of an analysis, the candidate would lead the reader
through the steps he went through that lead to his conceptual discovery.
The final chapter of any study is the conclusion. The conclusion has
two major objectives: (1) to summarize the study's major findings; and
(2) to suggest areas for further study. One should write the summary with
the assumption that this may be the first and only thing a reader may read.
In a nutshell give a tight overview of what your study was about and what
you found out. In a sentence you may wish to highlight the significance
of your study findings. Your conclusion is a sentence or two that ties
up your study and offers new directions for future study. It is important
not to suddenly introduce new information. Doing so only confuses your
reader and weakens the study.
There are numerous ways to approach a research topic. This section provides brief organizationational outlines and resources on the various methodological approaches.
Experimental Research
Field Observations
Survey Research
Literature Review
Case Study
Content Analysis
Trend/Issue Analysis
Comparative Analysis
** The Annotated Bibliography at the end of this section provides resources
on the various methodological approaches. Each section discusses additional
resources as well.
From the outset, there is one book that you will find as an invaluable
information source --
Rubin, R., Rubin, A. & Piele, L. Communication research: Strategies
& sources. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1990.
For all approaches, you want to make sure that you strive for
internal and external validity, otherwise your study may have little applicability.
(See Wimmer & Dominick, 1991, pp. 29-34.)
Because we have become such a visually oriented society, you may think
about how you can present your study findings in graphic form. Fink &
Kosecoff (1985) is a good source for presenting numerical data. White (1980)
and Tufte (1990) provide more visually creative ways of presenting information.
Additionally, there is a helpful video entitled, "Picture This: Organizing
Your Data" (available in the non-print media section of the library).
If you get stuck on either communication theory or research, there
are several sources you can turn to:
Anderson, J. A. Communication research: Issues and methods.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Fisher, B. A. Perspectives on human communication. NY: Macmillan,
1969.
Littlejohn, S. Theories of human communication. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 1989.
Serevin, A. & Tankard, J. Communication theories: Origins, methods
and uses in the mass media. White Plains, NY: Longman, 1992.
Smith, M. Contemporary communication research methods. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, 1990.
Wimmer, R. & Dominick, J. Mass media research. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, 1991.
If statistics still trouble you, there are several sources that can
help you understand the concepts behind the numbers.
Babbie, E. The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth,
1989.
Demers, D. & Nichols, S. Precision journalism. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage, 1987.
Hedderson, J. SPSS/PC+ made simple. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth,
1991.
Jaeger, R. Statistics: A spectator sport. Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage, 1975.
Rowntree, L. Statistics without tears: A primer for non-mathematicians.
NY: Scribners, 1981.
Williams, F. Reasoning with statistics. NY: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, 1991.
Mitchele, A. & Jolley, J. Research design explained. NY:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1988.
Experimental -- Study Outline
Chapter I. Introduction
(Discuss 5 basic study
elements. Present research hypothesis.)
Chapter II. Review of Literature
(Your literature can
include research on the study variables, relationship among the variables,
other studies with a similar hypothesis, or other studies with a similar
methodology)
Chapter III. Methodology
(Describe, step-by-step,
what you did in your research project and how you tested your hypothesis.
What was your treatment? Describe how you selected and assigned your subjects
to the control and experimental groups. Be as specific as you can.)
Chapter IV. Findings
(What did you find
out? Give clear and thorough summary of all of the results of your study.)
Chapter V. Discussion
(Discuss the study results.
Were the results what you expected? Was your hypothesis proven? If not,
why? Did you discover any extraneous variables that you hadn't accounted
for?)
Chapter VI. Summary and Conclusion
(Give a short summary
of the study -- the problem you looked at, why significant, what you did,
what you found out. State what you think the next research step someone
else can do in the future to help us understand the problem.)
Appendix
(You may wish to attach any materials that you used in your study.)
Field Observations -- Study Outline
Chapter I. Introduction
(Five basic components.
Include research question or hypothesis.)
Chapter II. Review of Literature
(What have others
said about this problem, what have they learned from their studies and
how does it relate to your study.)
Chapter III. Methodology
(Important to describe
method of recording observation, your coding method. Also describe in detail
the observation setting -- physical, emotional, and psychological context.
Explain rational for selection of observation setting.)
Chapter IV. Findings
(Give clear and thorough
summary of all of the results of your study.)
Chapter V. Discussion
(Discuss the results
of your study. Were the results what you expected?)
Chapter VI. Summary and Conclusion
(Give a short summary
of the study -- the problem you looked at, why significant, what you did,
what you found out. State what you think the next research step someone
else can do in the future to help us understand the problem.)
Appendix
(You may wish to include
sample coding sheet.)
Case Study -- Study Outline
Chapter I. Introduction
(Important to state
at the outset that you are conducting a case study. Need to state why you
selected the particular person, firm, or event that you did. Why did you
not choose another? How is the one you chose representative of others like
it? How is it different? Explain what you hope to achieve and how results
may be applied to other similar persons, firms, or events.)
Chapter II. Literature Review
Chapter III. Case Profile
(Provide a detail description
of the case. Who were the major players, what strategies or communication
activities did they employ, what was the time frame or sequence of events.
If you are describing a campaign, go systematically through the campaign
from research and planning stage to evaluation stage. Be sure to
include profile of intended audience.)
Chapter IV. Analysis
(Analyze the case.
Highlight the major findings, trends or patterns you found by looking at
the case. Need to develop a systematic way to present information
in an organized manner. May present in terms of (1) time periods to show
how events unfolded, (2) thematic categories from least important aspect
to most important aspect of case, (3) problems-solutions, etc.
Discuss how applicable to other cases.)
Chapter IV. Summary & Conclusion
(Summarize major findings.
Present areas for future research.)
Many times the force behind a powerful communication message is not
readily apparent. Content analysis is a research the tool that allows researchers
the means to systematically examine the visual or written components of
a communication message.
Pros/cons
Content analysis can provide depth and insight on the effectiveness
of messages. It is excellent for uncovering the subtleties in persuasive
communication. However, the descriptive process of the analysis can be
time consuming.
Precautions
One of the main problems I've seen in content analysis is not enough
background description of the setting in which the message appeared. This
is perhaps because content analysis is like looking at a message under
a microscope. Too many get consumed by the "message cell," and forget to
tell us what kind of animal the cell belongs to. Coding procedures must
be thoroughly described and, if possible, tested.
Examples
Visual content analysis -- depiction of elderly in magazine advertisements.
Content analysis of political advertisements -- presidential candidate
speeches or the pro-life/pro-choice campaign slogans.
Resources
Public Opinion Quarterly has some examples of content analyses.
Critical Studies in Mass Communication and Journal of Communication
provides more in-depth discussions of content analysis.
Berelson, B. Content analysis in communication research. NY:
Free Press, 1952.
Durgee, J. "Richer findings from qualitative research." Journal
of Advertising Research, Aug/Sept (1986):36-44.
Fisher, W. Human communication as narration. Charleston:
Univ. of S. Carolina Press, 1987.
Gudykunst, W. & Kim, Y. Methods of intercultural communication
research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984.
Osgood, C. et al. The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL: Univ.
of Illinios Press, 1983.
Smith, M. Contemporary communication research methods. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, 1990.
Content Analysis - - Study Outline
Chapter I. Introduction
ChapterII. Literature Review
(Discuss context in
which analysis is being conducted. Provide overview of the larger picture.)
ChapterIII. Methodology
(Discuss sampling
procedure used to select content/messages that were analyzed. Give operational
definitions of terms. Describe coding procedures used.)
Chapter IV. Findings
(Present findings.)
Chapter V. Discussion
(Discuss implication
of the findings.)
Chapter VI. Summary and Conclusion
(Summarize highlights
of study. Suggest areas for future research.)
Appendixes
(Examples of materials
analyzed.)